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印度斯坦文

出自維基百科，自由嘅百科全書
(由印度斯坦話跳轉過嚟)
印度斯坦文用者分佈

印度斯坦文（原文： हिन्दुस्तानी‎ 或者 ہندوستانی 或者 Hindustani），又叫印地烏都文（Hindi-Urdu），係印歐語系印度-伊朗語族語言，主要由印地文同烏都文組成，響印度同巴基斯坦用。

概念上，印度斯坦語作為一種「統一語言」或者「融合語言」，可以超越次大陸各地嘅社群同宗教分歧，得到咗聖雄甘地嘅認可，[1] 因為佢唔似印地語同烏爾都語噉，分別俾人覺得同印度教或者伊斯蘭教社群有關聯，而且佢亦都俾人認為係一種對人嚟講比較易學嘅語言。[2][3] 將印地語轉做烏爾都語（或者反之亦然），通常淨係需要喺兩種文字之間做轉寫就搞掂。[4] 另一方面，翻譯通常只係喺宗教同文學作品先至需要用到。[5]

學者追溯到呢種語言最早嘅書面詩歌，形式係古印地語，可以去到十二同十三世紀左右嘅德里蘇丹國時期。[6][7][8] 喺德里蘇丹國時期，佢嘅版圖覆蓋咗今日嘅印度、巴基斯坦東部、尼泊爾南部同孟加拉國嘅大部分地區，[9] 亦都促成咗印度教同伊斯蘭教文化嘅接觸，梵文同俗語作為古印地語嘅基礎，開始吸收咗波斯語嘅借詞而變得豐富，逐漸演變成而家嘅印度斯坦語。[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] 印度斯坦語呢種本土語言，喺印度獨立運動期間，變成咗印度民族團結嘅一種體現，[17][18] 並且繼續喺印度次大陸北部俾人當做通用語言嚟講，[19] 呢一點反映喺寶萊塢電影同歌曲嘅印度斯坦語詞彙入面。[20][21]

呢種語言嘅核心詞彙源自俗語（梵文嘅後裔），[22][23][24][25][26] 並且有好多嚟自波斯語同阿拉伯語（經由波斯語）嘅借詞。[10][27][28][23][29] 喺印地語同烏爾都語嘅情況下，佢通常會用天城文字或者係由阿拉伯文衍生出嚟嘅烏爾都文字嚟寫，而羅馬化就喺現代越來越多俾人採用，當做一種中性嘅文字。[30][31]

截至2023年，印地語同烏爾都語加埋一齊，係世界第三多人講嘅語言，排喺英文同普通話之後，根據《民族語》嘅資料，母語同第二語言使用者加埋有8億4千3百萬人，[32] 不過呢個數字包括咗數以百萬計喺印度人口普查入面自己報稱話自己嘅語言係「印地語」，但係實際上講緊其他印地語族語言而唔係印度斯坦語嘅人。[33] 據稱喺1995年，印地-烏爾都語嘅總使用者人數超過咗3億，令到印度斯坦語成為世界第三或者第四多人講嘅語言。[34][23]

疏仕

[編輯]
  1. ↑ "After experiments with Hindi as national language, how Gandhi changed his mind". Prabhu Mallikarjunan. The Feral. 3 October 2019.
  2. ↑ Rai, Alok. "The Persistence of Hindustani". ResearchGate.
  3. ↑ Lelyveld, David (1993-01-01). "Colonial knowledge and the fate of Hindustani". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 35 (4): 665–682. doi:10.1017/S0010417500018661. S2CID 144180838.
  4. ↑ Bhat, Riyaz Ahmad; Bhat, Irshad Ahmad; Jain, Naman; Sharma, Dipti Misra (2016). "A House United: Bridging the Script and Lexical Barrier between Hindi and Urdu" (PDF) (英文). Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. 喺18 October 2021搵到. Hindi and Urdu transliteration has received a lot of attention from the NLP research community of South Asia (Malik et al., 2008; Lehal and Saini, 2012; Lehal and Saini, 2014). It has been seen to break the barrier that makes the two look different.
  5. ↑ Bhat, Riyaz Ahmad; Bhat, Irshad Ahmad; Jain, Naman; Sharma, Dipti Misra (2016). "A House United: Bridging the Script and Lexical Barrier between Hindi and Urdu" (PDF) (英文). Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. 喺18 October 2021搵到. Hindi and Urdu transliteration has received a lot of attention from the NLP research community of South Asia (Malik et al., 2008; Lehal and Saini, 2012; Lehal and Saini, 2014). It has been seen to break the barrier that makes the two look different.
  6. ↑ Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona, 編 (2007). The Indo-Aryan languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. OCLC 648298147. Such an early date for the inception of a Hindi literature, one made possible only by subsuming the large body of Apabhraṁśa literature into Hindi, has not, however, been generally accepted by scholars (p. 279).
  7. ↑ Kachru, Yamuna (2006). Hindi. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. The period between 1000 AD-1200/1300 AD is designated the Old NIA stage because it is at this stage that the NIA languages such as Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi assumed distinct identities (p. 1, emphasis added)
  8. ↑ Dua, Hans (2008). "Hindustani". 出自 Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (編). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 497–500. Hindustani as a colloquial speech developed over almost seven centuries from 1100 to 1800 (p. 497, emphasis added).
  9. ↑ Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106-134.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 引用錯誤 無效嘅<ref>標籤；無文字提供畀叫做Brill1993嘅參照
  11. ↑ "Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation" (英文). Google Arts & Culture. 喺25 February 2020搵到. The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.
  12. ↑ Matthews, David John; Shackle, C.; Husain, Shahanara (1985). Urdu literature (英文). Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies. ISBN 978-0-907962-30-4. But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'.
  13. ↑ Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis (英文). University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 27. Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
  14. ↑ Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4 (英文). Tata Institute of Social Sciences. 1943. p. 264. ... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.
  15. ↑ 引用錯誤 無效嘅<ref>標籤；無文字提供畀叫做Mody2008嘅參照
  16. ↑ Kesavan, B. S. (1997). History Of Printing And Publishing In India (英文). National Book Trust, India. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0. It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.
  17. ↑ Hans Henrich Hock (1991). Principles of Historical Linguistics (英文). Walter de Gruyter. p. 475. ISBN 978-3-11-012962-5. During the time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the Dravidian south. ... Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, its national language.
  18. ↑ Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages (英文). Cambridge University Press. pp. 430 (Appendix I). ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India, much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani 1983: 90-1].
  19. ↑ Ashmore, Harry S. (1961). Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11 (英文). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 579. The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.
  20. ↑ Tunstall, Jeremy (2008). The media were American: U.S. mass media in decline (英文). Oxford University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-19-518146-3. The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words.
  21. ↑ Hiro, Dilip (2015). The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan (英文). PublicAffairs. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-56858-503-1. Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are written in Hindustani.
  22. ↑ Gube, Jan; Gao, Fang (2019). Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context (英文). Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-13-3125-1. The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000).
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Delacy, Richard; Ahmed, Shahara (2005). Hindi, Urdu & Bengali. Lonely Planet. pp. 11–12. Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions. That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets (and watch the same Bollywood films) have no problems understanding each other.
  24. ↑ "Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar". The Times of India. 12 March 2024. 喺8 May 2024搵到. The linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled "Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit.
  25. ↑ Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India (英文). Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2. Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.
  26. ↑ Chatterji, Suniti Kumar; Siṃha, Udaẏa Nārāẏana; Padikkal, Shivarama (1997). Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute (英文). Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-0353-2. High Hindi written in Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi.
  27. ↑ Draper, Allison Stark (2003). India: A Primary Source Cultural Guide (英文). Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3838-4. People in Delhi spoke Khari Boli, a language the British called Hindustani. It used an Indo-Aryan grammatical structure and numerous Persian "loan-words."
  28. ↑ Ahmad, Aijaz (2002). Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia (英文). Verso. p. 113. ISBN 9781859843581. On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. Farhang-e-Asafiya is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It twas compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that is draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as Farsi, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi.
  29. ↑ Dalmia, Vasudha (31 July 2017). Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories (英文). SUNY Press. p. 310. ISBN 9781438468075. On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112-13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.
  30. ↑ Brandt, Carmen; Sohoni, Pushkar (2018-01-02). "Script and identity – the politics of writing in South Asia: an introduction". South Asian History and Culture (英文). 9 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1080/19472498.2017.1411048. ISSN 1947-2498. S2CID 148802248.
  31. ↑ Brandt, Carmen (2020-01-01). "From a Symbol of Colonial Conquest to the Scripta Franca: The Roman Script for South Asian Languages". Academia. 原著喺2024-07-20歸檔. 喺2025-02-26搵到.
  32. ↑ Not considering whether speakers may be bilingual in Hindi and Urdu. "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue. 2023. 喺2024-08-11搵到.
  33. ↑ "Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011" (PDF). Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 29 June 2018.
  34. ↑ Gambhir, Vijay (1995). The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages (英文). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3328-5. The position of Hindi–Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish.
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