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核動力

出自維基百科,自由嘅百科全書
核電廠

核動力英文Nuclear power),又叫核能,係利用受控制嘅核反應嚟產生能源。現時嘅技術可以控制核裂變,但大規模聚變發電仲未實現。核裂變發電仍然存在核輻射核廢料處理嘅問題。

第一座核電廠喺1950年代建成。全球核能裝機容量喺1970年代末增長到100 吉瓦,到1990年擴大到300 吉瓦。但係1979年喺美國三哩島核事故同1986年喺蘇聯切爾諾貝爾核災難,導致監管增加同公眾反對核電廠。核電廠喺2023年供應咗2,602太瓦時(TWh)嘅電力,大約等於全球發電量嘅9%[1],並且係繼水力發電之後第二大低碳能源來源。截至2024年11月 (2024-11月)全球有415座民用裂變反應堆運行緊,總容量係374 吉瓦[2],另外有66座起緊,87座計劃緊,總容量分別係72 吉瓦同84 吉瓦。[3] 美國擁有最多嘅核反應堆,每年產生近800 太瓦時嘅低碳電力,平均容量因數達到92%。全球平均容量因數係89%。[2] 現時起緊嘅新反應堆大多係亞洲嘅第三代反應爐

核能係一種安全、可持續嘅能源,有助減少碳排放。同其他能源相比,核能發電每單位能源造成嘅死亡率係最低之一。「經濟學家估計,每起一座核電廠可以挽救超過80萬人嘅生命年。」[4] 煤、石油、天然氣同水力發電,都因為空氣污染意外,導致更高嘅每單位能源死亡率。核電廠唔會排放溫室氣體,而且生命週期碳排放量比常見嘅「可再生能源」更少。同核能相關嘅放射性危害係反核運動嘅主要動機,佢哋認為核能對人類同環境構成威脅,並引用意外嘅可能性(例如2011年喺日本嘅福島核災),以及同替代嘅可持續能源來源相比,部署成本太高。

歷史

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内文:核能史

起源

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EBR-I阿貢國家實驗室-西區,喺1951年12月20號,用核能發電點亮嘅頭四個燈泡。[5]

核裂變嘅過程喺1938年被發現,此前四十幾年嘅研究主要集中喺放射性科學同闡述描述原子組件嘅新核物理學。發現裂變過程後冇幾耐,科學家意識到,喺適當條件下,裂變核釋放嘅中子可以喺附近嘅核引發裂變,從而產生自我維持嘅連鎖反應[6] 1939年實驗證實咗呢點之後,好多國家嘅科學家喺第二次世界大戰爆發前夕,請求政府支持核裂變研究,目的係開發核武器[7]

喺美國,呢啲研究促成咗第一座人造核反應爐——芝加哥1號堆嘅誕生,佢喺1942年12月2號喺芝加哥大學史塔格球場下面達到臨界狀態。反應堆嘅開發係曼哈頓計劃嘅一部分,呢個係盟軍喺二戰期間為咗製造原子彈而進行嘅努力。佢促成咗更大規模嘅單用途生產反應爐嘅建造,用嚟生產武器級鈈,用於第一批核武器。美國喺1945年7月測試咗第一件核武器(三位一體核試驗),而廣島同長崎原子彈爆炸就喺一個月後發生。

1954年1月6號鸚鵡螺號 (SSN-571)嘅下水典禮。喺1958年,佢成為第一艘到達北極嘅船。[8]
喺英國嘅卡德霍爾核電站,世界第一座商用核電站

雖然第一批核裝置係軍事性質,但喺1940年代同1950年代,人們普遍對核能可以提供廉價同無限能源感到非常樂觀。[9] 1951年12月20號,喺愛達荷州阿科附近嘅EBR-I實驗站,電力首次由核反應堆產生,最初產生咗大約100 千瓦嘅電力。[10][11] 1953年,美國總統德懷特·艾森豪威爾聯合國發表咗佢嘅「和平利用原子能」演講,強調需要快速發展核能嘅「和平」用途。隨後嘅1954年原子能法案允許美國快速解密反應堆技術,並鼓勵私營部門進行開發。

首次發電

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第一個開發實用核能嘅組織係美國海軍,佢哋嘅S1W反應爐旨在推動潛艇航空母艦。第一艘核動力潛艇鸚鵡螺號 (SSN-571)喺1954年1月下水。[12][13] S1W反應爐係一種壓水反應爐(PWR)。選擇呢種設計係因為佢比其他設計更簡單、更緊湊、更容易操作,因此更適合喺潛艇上使用。呢個決定令PWR成為發電嘅首選反應堆類型,對未來幾年民用電力市場產生咗深遠影響。[14]

1954年6月27號,蘇聯奧布寧斯克核電廠成為世界上第一座為電網發電嘅核電廠,產生咗大約5兆瓦嘅電力。[15] 世界上第一座商用核電站,位於英國溫斯凱爾嘅卡德霍爾(Calder Hall),喺1956年8月27號連接到國家電網。同其他一啲第一代反應爐一樣,呢座電廠具有生產電力鈈-239嘅雙重目的,後者用於英國新興嘅核武器計劃[16]

擴張同首次反對

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全球已裝核能容量最初增長迅速,由1960年嘅少於1吉瓦(GW)增長到1970年代後期嘅100 吉瓦。[12] 喺1970年代同1980年代,經濟成本上升(主要同監管變化、壓力團體訴訟導致嘅建造時間延長有關)[17] 以及化石燃料價格下跌,令當時起緊嘅核電廠吸引力下降。喺1980年代嘅美國同1990年代嘅歐洲,電力網增長停滯同電力自由化亦令增加大型新基載能源發電機喺經濟上冇吸引力。

1973年石油危機對一啲國家產生咗重大影響,例如法國日本,佢哋原本更依賴石油發電,危機後轉而大力投資核能。[18] 法國喺之後嘅15年內起咗25座核電廠,[19][20] 截至2019年,法國71%嘅電力嚟自核能,係全球比例最高嘅國家。[21]

喺1960年代初期,美國出現咗一啲地區性嘅反核聲音。[22] 到咗1960年代後期,科學界部分人士開始表達明確擔憂。[23] 呢啲反核擔憂主要同核事故核擴散核恐怖主義放射性廢物處置有關。[24] 1970年代初期,德國維爾(Wyhl)計劃興建核電廠引發咗大型抗議活動。該項目喺1975年被取消。維爾反核嘅成功,激勵咗歐洲同北美其他地區反對核能嘅聲音。[25][26]

到咗1970年代中期,反核行動主義獲得咗更廣泛嘅關注同影響力,核能成為公眾抗議嘅主要議題。[27][28] 喺一啲國家,核能衝突「達到咗技術爭議史上前所未有嘅激烈程度」。[29][30] 公眾對核能日益增長嘅敵意,導致許可證申請過程更長、監管更嚴格、安全設備要求更高,令新建設成本更加昂貴。[31][32] 喺美國,超過120個輕水反應堆提案最終被取消[33],新反應堆嘅建設亦都停頓咗。[34] 1979年嘅三哩島核事故雖然冇造成死亡,但喺好多國家減少新電廠建設數量方面扮演咗重要角色。[23]

切爾諾貝爾同復興

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自1986年起被廢棄嘅普里皮亞季鎮,遠處係切爾諾貝爾電廠同切爾諾貝爾新安全圍堵體拱頂
2009年起緊嘅奧爾基洛托3號機組。佢係第一座開始起嘅歐洲壓水反應爐(EPR),一種現代化嘅壓水反應堆設計。

喺1980年代,平均每17日就有一座新嘅核反應堆開始運作。[35] 到咗呢個十年嘅尾聲,全球已裝核能容量達到300 吉瓦。自1980年代後期以嚟,新增容量嘅速度顯著放緩,已裝核能容量喺2005年達到366 吉瓦。

1986年喺蘇聯發生嘅切爾諾貝爾核災難,涉及一座RBMK反應爐,改變咗核能發展嘅軌跡,並加強咗對符合國際安全同監管標準嘅關注。[36] 佢被認為係歷史上最嚴重嘅核災難,無論係喺總傷亡人數(56人直接死亡)定係經濟損失(清理同成本估計為180億蘇聯盧布,相當於2019年嘅680億美元,經通脹調整後)方面。[37][38] 旨在促進安全意識同核設施營運商專業發展嘅國際組織世界核電營運者協會(WANO)嘅成立,係1986年切爾諾貝爾事故嘅直接後果。切爾諾貝爾災難喺隨後幾年新電廠建設數量減少方面扮演咗重要角色。[23] 受呢啲事件影響,意大利喺1987年嘅公投中投票反對核能,[39] 並喺1990年成為第一個完全淘汰核能嘅國家。

喺2000年代初期,由於對二氧化碳排放嘅擔憂,預期核能會迎嚟一場核能復興,即新反應堆建設嘅增加。[40] 喺呢段時間,第三代反應爐嘅新型號,例如歐洲壓水反應爐(EPR)開始建造。

福島事故

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自1997年以嚟嘅核能發電量(太瓦時)同運行中嘅核反應堆[41]

核能復興嘅前景被另一場核事故延遲咗。[40][42] 2011年嘅福島第一核電廠事故係由日本東北地方太平洋近海地震引發嘅,呢次地震係有記錄以嚟最強烈嘅地震之一。福島第一核電廠由於應急冷卻系統因電力供應中斷而失效,導致三個反應堆爐心熔毀。呢次事故係自切爾諾貝爾災難以嚟最嚴重嘅核事故。

呢次事故促使好多國家重新審視核安全核能政策[43] 德國批准咗喺2022年之前關閉所有反應堆嘅計劃,好多其他國家都檢討咗佢哋嘅核能計劃。[44][45][46][47] 災難發生後,日本關閉咗所有核電反應堆,其中一啲永久關閉,並喺2015年開始逐步重啟其餘40座反應堆嘅過程,前提係通過安全檢查、符合修訂後嘅營運標準同獲得公眾批准。[48]

喺2022年,日本政府喺首相岸田文雄領導下,宣布自2011年災難以嚟,將重新開放多達10座核電廠。[49] 岸田亦推動研究同建造更安全嘅新核電廠,以保障日本消費者免受化石燃料市場價格波動嘅影響,並減少日本嘅溫室氣體排放。[50] 岸田嘅目標係令日本成為全球發展中國家核能同技術嘅主要出口國。[50]

目前前景

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到2015年,國際原子能機構(IAEA)對核能前景變得更加樂觀,認識到低碳發電對減緩氣候變化嘅重要性。[51] 截至2015年 (2015-唔見咗必要嘅參數 1=月份),全球趨勢係新核電站投入運營嘅數量同舊電廠退役嘅數量大致相當。[52] 喺2016年,美國能源資訊署(EIA)喺佢嘅「基本情況」預測中,預計全球核能發電量將從2012年嘅2,344太瓦時(TWh)增加到2040年嘅4,500 太瓦時。預計大部分增長將喺亞洲發生。[53] 截至2018年,計劃興建超過150座核反應堆,包括50座正在建設中。[54] 喺2019年1月,中國有45座反應堆運作中,13座建設中,並計劃再起43座,呢將令佢成為全球最大嘅核能發電國。[55] 截至2021年,據報有17座反應堆建設中。中國建造嘅反應堆數量遠低於原計劃。核電喺2019年佔其電力嘅5%,[56] 觀察家警告,除咗風險之外,能源生產經濟學嘅變化可能令新核電廠「喺一個傾向於更平、更可靠嘅可再生能源嘅世界入面,變得冇意義」。[57][58]

喺2021年10月,日本內閣批准咗由自然資源及能源廳(ANRE)同諮詢委員會喺公眾諮詢後制定嘅新《2030年電力生產計劃》。2030年嘅核能目標要求重啟另外十座反應堆。首相岸田文雄喺2022年7月宣布,日本應考慮建造先進反應堆,並將營運許可證延長至60年以上。[59]

截至2022年,世界石油同天然氣價格上漲,而德國為咗應對俄羅斯天然氣供應中斷(佢哋需要天然氣嚟補充其能源轉型(Energiewende)),重新啟動咗煤電廠。[60] 好多其他國家都宣布咗雄心勃勃嘅計劃,通過新投資嚟重振老化嘅核能發電能力。法國總統伊曼紐爾·馬克宏宣布計劃喺未來幾十年內建造六座新反應堆,將核能置於法國到2050年實現碳中和努力嘅核心。[61] 同時,喺美國,美國能源部正同商業實體泰拉能源(TerraPower)同X能源(X-energy)合作,計劃喺2027年之前建造兩座唔同嘅先進核反應堆,並計劃喺其長期綠色能源同能源安全目標中實施核能。[62]

發電廠

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壓水反應爐運作動畫
截至2014年,按類型劃分嘅發電民用反應堆數量[63]

核電廠係一種火力發電廠,利用核裂變釋放嘅熱能嚟發電。一座裂變核電廠通常包括以下部分:核反應爐(喺入面進行產生熱量嘅核反應);冷卻系統(將熱量由反應堆內部帶走);蒸汽渦輪機(將熱量轉化為機械能);發電機(將機械能轉化為電能)。[64]

當一個中子撞擊鈾-235原子核時,可以將其分裂成兩個較細嘅原子核,呢個就係核裂變反應。呢個反應會釋放能量同中子。釋放出嚟嘅中子可以再撞擊其他鈾或鈈原子核,引發新嘅裂變反應,從而釋放更多能量同更多中子。呢個叫做連鎖反應。喺大多數商用反應堆入面,反應速率係透過吸收多餘中子嘅控制棒嚟控制。核反應堆嘅可控性,係因為裂變產生嘅一小部分中子係延遲嘅。裂變同中子釋放之間嘅時間延遲,減慢咗反應速率嘅變化,令操作員有時間移動控制棒嚟調整反應速率。[64][65]

燃料循環

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核燃料循環由鈾礦開採開始,之後將鈾濃縮並製造成核燃料(1),再運到核電廠。用完之後,乏燃料會被運到再處理廠(2)或最終處置庫(3)。喺核燃料再處理過程中,95%嘅乏燃料有可能被回收再利用,然後送返發電廠(4)。

核燃料嘅生命週期由鈾礦開採開始。然後將鈾礦轉化為緊湊嘅礦石濃縮物形式,稱為黃餅(U3O8),方便運輸。[66] 裂變反應堆通常需要鈾-235,一種易裂變鈾同位素。天然鈾入面鈾-235嘅濃度好低(約0.7%)。有啲反應堆可以用呢種天然鈾做燃料,視乎佢哋嘅中子經濟性。呢啲反應堆通常使用石墨或重水做慢化劑。對於最常見嘅反應堆類型——輕水反應堆嚟講,呢個濃度太低,必須透過稱為鈾濃縮嘅過程嚟提高。[66] 喺民用輕水反應堆入面,鈾通常會被濃縮到含3.5-5%嘅鈾-235。[67] 之後,鈾通常會轉化成二氧化鈾(UO2),一種陶瓷,然後壓實燒結成燃料丸(fuel pellets),一疊燃料丸就形成適合特定反應堆成分同幾何形狀嘅燃料棒[67]

喺反應堆入面用咗一段時間後,燃料中嘅易裂變物質會減少,裂變產物會增加,直到佢嘅使用變得唔符合經濟效益。[67] 到咗呢個時候,用過嘅燃料(乏燃料)會被移到乏燃料池,呢個池提供冷卻同電離輻射屏蔽。經過幾個月或幾年之後,乏燃料嘅放射性同熱量就會充分降低,可以安全地轉移到乾式貯存容器或者進行再處理。[67]

鈾資源

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鈾-238(藍色)同鈾-235(紅色)喺天然鈾同濃縮鈾中嘅比例,適用於唔同應用。輕水反應堆使用3-5%濃縮鈾,而加拿大重水鈾反應爐(CANDU)可以用天然鈾。

係地殼入面一種相當常見嘅元素:佢嘅含量大約同差唔多,比常見約40倍。[68] 大多數岩石、泥土同海水都含有微量嘅鈾,但通常只有喺濃度相對較高嘅地方先會進行經濟開採。鈾礦開採可以係地下、露天開採地浸開採。產量最高嘅礦山越來越多係偏遠嘅地下作業,例如加拿大嘅麥克阿瑟河鈾礦,佢自己就佔全球產量嘅13%。截至2011年,全球已知嘅鈾資源,以每公斤130美元嘅價格上限計算,經濟上可回收嘅量足夠用70到100年。[69][70][71] 喺2007年,經濟合作暨發展組織估計,如果按照當時嘅使用率計算,常規資源同磷酸鹽礦石入面經濟上可回收嘅鈾總共有670年嘅供應量。[72]

輕水反應堆對核燃料嘅利用效率相對較低,主要只係用咗非常稀有嘅鈾-235同位素。[73] 核燃料再處理可以令呢啲廢物可以重複使用,而新嘅反應堆比舊嘅反應堆可以更有效地利用可用資源。[73] 如果採用純快反應爐燃料循環,將所有鈾同錒系元素(目前佔核廢料中最危險物質嘅大部分)燃燒殆盡,喺60-100美元/公斤嘅價格下,常規資源同磷酸鹽礦石入面估計有16萬年嘅鈾供應量。[74] 不過,再處理成本高昂,可能有危險,而且可以用嚟製造核武器。[75][76][77][78][79] 一項分析發現,鈾價格喺2035年至2100年間可能上漲兩個數量級,而且喺本世紀末可能出現短缺。[80] 麻省理工學院伍茲霍爾海洋研究所嘅研究人員喺2017年進行嘅一項研究發現,「按照目前嘅消耗速度,全球陸地鈾嘅常規儲量(約760萬噸)可能喺一個多世紀內耗盡」。[81] 有限嘅鈾-235供應可能限制目前核技術嘅大規模擴張。[82] 雖然人們正在探索多種減少對呢啲資源依賴嘅方法,[83][84][85] 但新嘅核技術被認為唔能夠及時投入使用以達到減緩氣候變化嘅目的,或者同更平、更可靠嘅可再生能源替代品競爭,而且成本更高,需要昂貴嘅研發。[82][86][87] 一項研究發現,已探明嘅資源能否快速開發到足以為擴大嘅核設施提供不間斷嘅燃料供應係唔確定嘅,[88] 而各種形式嘅開採可能會受到生態障礙、成本同土地需求嘅挑戰。[89][90] 研究人員亦報告核能對進口嘅依賴程度相當高。[91][92][93][94]

仲有非常規嘅鈾資源。鈾天然存在於海水入面,濃度大約係每公升3微克每公升(µg/L)。[95][96][97] 據估計,任何時候海水入面都存在44億噸鈾。[98] 喺2014年,有人提出,如果大規模實施從海水提取核燃料嘅過程,喺經濟上會具有競爭力。[99] 同化石燃料一樣,從地質時間尺度嚟睇,從海水中工業規模提取嘅鈾會通過河流對岩石嘅侵蝕同從海底表面溶解嘅鈾嘅自然過程得到補充,呢兩個過程維持咗海水濃度嘅溶解度平衡喺一個穩定水平。[98] 一啲評論員認為,呢個加強咗核能應被視為可再生能源嘅觀點。[100]

廢物

[編輯]
内文:核廢料
二氧化鈾燃料喺輕水反應爐一次通過核燃料循環入面大約三年之前同之後嘅典型成分[101]

核電廠同設施嘅正常運作會產生放射性廢物,即核廢料。呢種廢物亦喺電廠退役期間產生。核廢料有兩大類:低放射性廢物同高放射性廢物。[102] 前者放射性較低,包括受污染嘅物品,例如衣物,佢哋構成嘅威脅有限。高放射性廢物主要係嚟自核反應堆嘅乏燃料,佢哋具有高度放射性,必須冷卻,然後安全處置或者再處理。[102]

高放射性廢物

[編輯]
乏二氧化鈾燃料嘅活性同天然鈾礦活性隨時間嘅比較[103][101]
乾式貯存容器儲存乏核燃料組件

嚟自核電反應堆嘅最重要廢物流係乏核燃料,佢被視為高放射性廢物(HLW)。對於輕水反應堆(LWR)嚟講,乏燃料通常由95%嘅鈾、4%嘅裂變產物同大約1%嘅超鈾元素錒系元素(主要係)組成。[104] 裂變產物負責大部分短期放射性,而鈈同其他超鈾元素則負責大部分長期放射性。[105]

高放射性廢物必須同生物圈隔離儲存,並有足夠嘅屏蔽以限制輻射暴露。用過嘅燃料束從反應堆取出後,會喺乏燃料池入面儲存六到十年,呢啲燃料池提供冷卻同屏蔽輻射。之後,燃料會冷卻到足以安全轉移到乾式貯存[106] 放射性會隨時間呈指數級下降,喺100年後減少99.5%。[107] 放射性更強嘅短壽裂變產物(SLFP)喺大約300年內會衰變成穩定元素,大約10萬年之後,乏燃料嘅放射性會低過天然鈾礦。[101][108]

常用嘅將長壽裂變產物廢物同生物圈隔離嘅方法包括分離同核嬗變(transmutation)、[101] Synroc處理,或者深地質儲存。[109][110][111][112]

熱中子反應爐目前佔全球反應堆嘅大多數,佢哋無法燃燒喺反應堆運行期間產生嘅反應爐級鈈。呢個限制咗核燃料嘅壽命只有幾年。喺一啲國家,例如美國,乏燃料被完全歸類為核廢料。[113] 喺其他國家,例如法國,會對乏燃料進行大量再處理,以生產部分回收嘅燃料,稱為混合氧化物燃料(MOX燃料)。對於唔進行再處理嘅乏燃料,最令人擔憂嘅同位素係中壽命嘅超鈾元素,主要以反應爐級鈈(半衰期24,000年)為主。[114] 一啲提議嘅反應堆設計,例如整體式快反應爐(Integral Fast Reactor)同熔鹽反應爐(Molten Salt Reactor),可以利用輕水反應堆乏燃料中嘅鈈同其他錒系元素作為燃料,因為佢哋嘅快裂變譜。呢個為深地質處置提供咗一個潛在更具吸引力嘅替代方案。[115][116][117]

釷燃料循環產生嘅裂變產物相似,但由中子俘獲事件產生嘅超鈾元素比例細好多。乏釷燃料雖然比乏鈾燃料更難處理,但可能帶嚟嘅核擴散風險稍微低啲。[118]

低放射性廢物

[編輯]

核工業亦會產生大量低放射性廢物(LLW),呢啲廢物放射性較低,形式係受污染嘅物品,例如衣物、手工具、淨水器樹脂,以及(喺退役時)建造反應堆本身嘅材料。低放射性廢物可以喺現場儲存,直到放射性水平低到可以當作普通廢物處理,或者可以送到低放射性廢物處置場。[119]

廢物相對於其他類型

[編輯]

喺有核能嘅國家,放射性廢物佔工業有毒廢物總量嘅比例唔到1%,但好多有毒廢物會喺好長一段時間內保持危險狀態。[73] 總體嚟講,核能產生嘅廢物量比化石燃料發電廠少得多。[120] 特別係燃煤電廠,佢哋會產生大量有毒同輕度放射性嘅灰燼,因為煤入面天然放射性物質嘅濃度增加咗。[121] 橡樹嶺國家實驗室喺2008年嘅一份報告總結話,實際上煤電廠排放到環境嘅放射性物質比核電廠運作排放嘅更多,而且煤電廠輻射造成嘅人口有效劑量當量係核電廠運作嘅100倍。[122] 雖然煤灰嘅放射性按重量計遠低於乏核燃料,但每單位能量產生嘅煤灰量要高得多。佢仲以飛灰嘅形式直接釋放到環境,而核電廠就使用屏蔽嚟保護環境免受放射性物質嘅侵害。[123]

同產生嘅能量相比,核廢料嘅體積好細。例如,揚基羅核電站喺運作期間產生咗440億千瓦時嘅電力,佢嘅全部乏燃料庫存都裝喺16個容器入面。[124] 據估計,要為一個按照西方生活水平嘅人提供一生嘅能源供應(約3吉瓦時),大約需要一個汽水罐體積嘅低濃縮鈾,產生嘅乏燃料體積亦差唔多。[125][126][127]

廢物處置

[編輯]
WIPP放射性廢物儲存
核廢料桶,係美國喺冷戰期間產生嘅,而家儲存喺新墨西哥州廢棄物隔離導航廠(WIPP)地下。呢個設施被視為儲存民用反應堆乏燃料嘅潛在示範。

乏燃料池進行臨時儲存之後,典型核電站用過嘅燃料棒組件通常會喺乾式貯存容器入面現場儲存。[128] 現時,廢物主要儲存喺個別反應堆廠址,全球有超過430個地點繼續積累放射性物質。

核廢料處置通常被認為係核電設施生命週期中最具政治爭議性嘅方面。[129] 加蓬奧克洛嘅20億年歷史天然核裂變反應爐入面嘅核廢料冇發生移動,呢點被引用為「當今重要資訊嘅來源」。[130][131] 專家建議,管理良好、有人看守同監測嘅集中式地下處置庫將會係一大改進。[129] 「對於將核廢料儲存喺深地質處置庫嘅可取性,國際上已經達成咗共識」。[132] 隨著新技術嘅出現,有人提出咗其他方法,包括喺地質上唔活躍嘅區域進行水平鑽孔處置[133][134]

大多數廢物包裝、小型實驗燃料回收化學同放射性藥物精煉都喺遠程操作嘅熱室入面進行。

現時冇商業規模嘅專用地下高放射性廢物處置庫正在運作。[132][135][136] 不過,喺芬蘭,奧爾基洛托核電廠奧恩卡洛核廢料處置庫(Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository)截至2015年仍然喺建設中。[137]

再處理

[編輯]

大多數熱中子反應爐都喺一次通過核燃料循環中運行,主要係因為新鮮鈾嘅價格相對較低。不過,好多反應堆都使用喺乏核燃料中剩餘嘅回收裂變材料作為燃料。最常見嘅回收裂變材料係從乏燃料提取嘅反應爐級鈈(RGPu)。佢同二氧化鈾混合,製成混合氧化物燃料(MOX燃料)。由於熱中子輕水反應堆仍然係全球最常見嘅反應堆類型,因此呢種類型嘅回收最為普遍。佢被認為可以提高核燃料循環嘅可持續性,降低乏燃料被盜用嘅吸引力,並減少高放射性核廢料嘅體積。[138] 乏MOX燃料通常唔能夠喺熱中子反應堆中回收使用。呢個問題唔會影響快中子反應爐,因此佢哋係實現原始鈾全部能量潛力嘅首選。[139][140]

嚟自輕水反應堆乏燃料嘅主要成分係輕微濃縮鈾。佢可以回收成再生鈾(RepU),可以用喺快反應堆,直接用作加拿大重水鈾反應爐(CANDU)嘅燃料,或者重新濃縮後再喺輕水反應堆中循環使用。再生鈾嘅重新濃縮喺法國同俄羅斯好常見。[141] 再生鈾喺核擴散潛力方面亦都更安全。[142][143][144]

再處理有潛力回收乏核燃料中高達95%嘅鈾同鈈,並降低剩餘廢物中嘅長期放射性。但係,由於核擴散嘅潛在可能性,以及對增加核恐怖主義脆弱性嘅唔同睇法,再處理喺政治上一直備受爭議。[139][145] 同一次通過燃料循環相比,再處理亦會導致更高嘅燃料成本。[139][145] 雖然再處理減少咗高放射性廢物嘅體積,但佢並冇減少裂變產物,裂變產物係反應堆外頭幾個世紀殘餘熱量產生同放射性嘅主要來源。因此,再處理廢物喺最初嘅幾百年內仍然需要幾乎相同嘅處理方法。

目前,法國、英國、俄羅斯、日本同印度都有對發電反應堆嘅民用燃料進行再處理。喺美國,乏核燃料目前冇進行再處理。[141] 法國嘅拉海牙再處理設施自1976年起一直商業運作,截至2010年,佢負責全球一半嘅再處理量。[146] 佢利用嚟自多個國家嘅乏燃料生產MOX燃料。截至2015年,已經再處理咗超過32,000噸乏燃料,其中大部分嚟自法國,17%嚟自德國,9%嚟自日本。[147]

滋生

[編輯]
核燃料組件喺美國嘅壓水反應爐中使用之前進行檢查

滋生(Breeding)係將非裂變材料轉化為可用作核燃料嘅裂變材料嘅過程。可用於呢個過程嘅非裂變材料稱為可滋生材料,佢哋佔目前核廢料嘅絕大部分。呢個滋生過程喺滋生反應爐入面自然發生。同使用鈾-235(佔所有天然鈾嘅0.7%)嘅輕水熱中子反應堆相反,快中子滋生反應堆使用鈾-238(佔所有天然鈾嘅99.3%)或者。一啲燃料循環同滋生反應堆嘅組合被認為係可持續或者可再生嘅能源來源。[148][149] 喺2006年,有人估計,如果從海水提取鈾,可能有價值50億年嘅鈾資源用於滋生反應堆。[150]

滋生技術已經喺多座反應堆中使用過,但截至2006年,安全再處理燃料嘅高昂成本需要鈾價格超過每公斤200美元先喺經濟上變得合理。[151] 然而,滋生反應堆正在開發中,因為佢哋有潛力燃燒目前核廢料庫存中嘅所有錒系元素(活性最強同最危險嘅成分),同時透過滋生過程發電並為更多反應堆產生額外嘅燃料。[152][153] 截至2017年,有兩座滋生反應堆喺生產商用電力,分別係BN-600反應爐BN-800反應爐,兩者都喺俄羅斯。[154] 法國嘅鳳凰號反應爐喺運作36年後,喺2009年關閉咗。[154] 中國同印度都正在建造滋生反應堆。印度嘅500兆瓦原型快滋生反應爐(Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor)正處於調試階段,[155] 並計劃建造更多。[156]

快中子滋生反應堆嘅另一個替代方案係熱中子滋生反應堆,佢哋使用從滋生出嚟嘅鈾-233作為釷燃料循環中嘅裂變燃料。[157] 釷喺地殼中嘅含量大約係鈾嘅3.5倍,而且具有唔同嘅地理分佈特徵。[157] 印度三階段核能計劃嘅第三階段特色係使用釷燃料循環,因為印度擁有豐富嘅釷儲量,但鈾儲量相對較少。[157]

除役

[編輯]

核設施退役(Nuclear decommissioning)係指拆除核設施,直到佢唔再需要輻射防護措施為止,[158] 並將設施同佢嘅組件恢復到足夠安全嘅水平,可以委託俾其他用途。[159] 由於存在放射性物質,核設施退役喺技術同經濟上都面臨挑戰。[160] 除役嘅成本通常會分散喺設施嘅整個生命週期內,並儲存喺除役基金入面。[161]

生產

[編輯]
2023年核能發電量佔比[162]
全球核能狀況(點擊睇圖例)

Template:Latest pie chart of world power by source 2023年,民用核能供應咗2,602太瓦時(TWh)嘅電力,相當於大約9%嘅全球發電量[1] 並且係水力發電之後第二大低碳能源來源。[163] 核能對全球能源生產嘅貢獻喺2023年大約係4%。呢個比風力發電稍微多啲,風力發電喺2023年提供咗全球能源嘅3.5%。[164] 核能喺全球電力生產中所佔嘅份額已經從1997年嘅16.5%下降,好大程度上係因為核能嘅經濟性變得更加困難。[165]

截至2024年11月 (2024-11月)全球有415座民用裂變反應堆運行緊,總發電容量為374吉瓦(GW)。[2] 另外有66座核電反應堆起緊,87座反應堆計劃緊,總容量分別係72 吉瓦同84 吉瓦。[3] 美國擁有最多嘅核反應堆,每年產生超過800 太瓦時嘅電力,平均容量因數為92%。[166] 大多數起緊嘅反應堆都係亞洲嘅第三代反應爐[167]

唔同地區對核能嘅使用情況差異好大。美國生產嘅核能最多,核能發電量佔佢電力消耗嘅19%,而法國核反應堆發電量佔佢電力能源嘅百分比最高,2023年達到65%。[21]歐洲聯盟入面,截至2022年,核能發電量佔22%。[168] 核能係美國最大嘅單一低碳能源來源,[169] 約佔歐盟低碳電力嘅一半。[168] 核能政策喺歐盟國家之間有所唔同,一啲國家,例如奧地利、愛沙尼亞、愛爾蘭同意大利,冇運作中嘅核電站。

此外,大約有140艘海軍艦艇使用核動力運作,由大約180座反應堆提供動力。[170][171] 呢啲包括軍用同埋一啲民用船隻,例如核動力破冰船[172]

國際研究繼續深入探討工藝熱嘅其他用途,例如氫氣生產(支持氫經濟)、用於海水淡化同用於區域供熱系統。[173]

經濟

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新建核電廠嘅經濟性係一個備受爭議嘅話題,數十億美元嘅投資取決於能源來源嘅選擇。核電廠嘅建設資本成本通常好高。因此,同其他發電方法嘅比較在很大程度上取決於對核電廠建設時間表同資本融資嘅假設。燃料成本約佔運營成本嘅30%,而價格受市場影響。[174]

高昂嘅建設成本係核電廠面臨嘅最大挑戰之一。一座新嘅1,100 兆瓦電廠估計成本喺60億至90億美元之間。[175] 核電成本趨勢顯示出國家、設計、建設速度同專業知識熟悉程度方面嘅巨大差異。喺2000年代成本下降嘅唯二兩個有數據嘅國家係印度同韓國。[176]

對核能經濟性嘅分析仲必須考慮到邊個承擔未來不確定性嘅風險。截至2010年,所有運作中嘅核電廠都係由國有或者監管電力公司壟斷企業開發嘅。[177] 自嗰時起,好多國家都自由化咗電力市場,喺呢個市場入面,呢啲風險,以及喺資本成本收回之前出現更平競爭對手嘅風險,都係由電廠供應商同營運商承擔,而唔係消費者承擔,呢個導致對新核電廠經濟性嘅評估截然唔同。[178]

根據國際能源署(IEA)同經濟合作暨發展組織核能機構(NEA)嘅分析,一座新核電廠嘅均化發電成本(LCOE)估計為每兆瓦時69美元(USD/MWh)。呢個代表咗喺2025年完成嘅同類型核電廠嘅中位成本估計值,折現率為7%。人們發現,核能係可調度技術入面成本最低嘅選擇。[179] 變動性可再生能源可以產生更平嘅電力:陸上風力發電嘅中位成本估計為50美元/兆瓦時,公用事業規模嘅太陽能發電為56美元/兆瓦時。[179] 喺假定二氧化碳排放成本為每噸30美元嘅情況下,嚟自煤炭(88美元/兆瓦時)同天然氣(71美元/兆瓦時)嘅電力比低碳技術更貴。人們發現,透過延長壽命嚟實現核電廠嘅長期運營(LTO),發電成本係最低嘅,為32美元/兆瓦時。[179]

減緩全球暖化嘅措施,例如碳稅或者碳排放交易,可能會有利於核能嘅經濟性。[180][181] 極端天氣事件,包括氣候變化加劇嘅事件,喺一定程度上降低咗所有能源嘅可靠性,包括核能,具體取決於選址地點。[182][183]

小型模組化反應爐(SMR)嘅新型號,例如紐斯凱爾電力公司(NuScale Power)開發嘅嗰啲,旨在透過令反應堆更細、更模組化嚟降低新建設嘅投資成本,噉樣佢哋就可以喺工廠入面建造。

一啲設計早期嘅經濟效益相當好,例如加拿大重水鈾反應爐(CANDU),同第二代輕水反應堆相比,佢喺1990年代之前實現咗更高嘅容量因數同可靠性。[184]

核電廠雖然有一定嘅電網調峰能力,但通常會盡可能多咁運行,以保持產生嘅電力能源成本盡可能低,主要供應基載電力[185] 由於在線換料(online refueling)反應堆嘅設計,壓水重水反應爐(其中CANDU設計係一部分)繼續保持住好多最長連續發電嘅世界紀錄,通常超過800日。[186] 截至2019年,凱加核電站嘅一座壓水重水反應堆保持住特定嘅紀錄,連續發電962日。[187]

均化發電成本計算中冇考慮到嘅成本包括研發資金同災難(福島核災估計要花費納稅人約1870億美元)。[188] 有人發現,喺一啲情況下,政府強迫「消費者預先支付潛在嘅成本超支」,[87] 或者補貼唔經濟嘅核能,[189] 或者被要求噉樣做。[58] 歐盟嘅核電營運商有責任支付廢物管理費用。[190] 據報喺美國,國會喺40年前決定,國家而唔係私營公司將負責儲存放射性廢物,費用由納稅人承擔。[191] 《2019年世界核廢料報告》發現,「即使喺污染者付費原則係法律要求嘅國家,佢嘅應用都唔完整」,並指出咗德國阿瑟二世深地質處置庫嘅案例,喺呢個案例入面,大量廢物嘅回收必須由納稅人支付。[192] 同樣,包括化石燃料同可再生能源在內嘅其他能源形式,佢哋嘅部分成本都係由政府承擔嘅。[193]

喺太空嘅應用

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多任務放射性同位素熱電機發生器(MMRTG),用於多個太空任務,例如「好奇號」火星車
内文:太空核能

核能喺太空最常見嘅應用係使用放射性同位素熱電機發生器(RTG),佢哋利用放射性衰變嚟發電。呢啲發電機規模相對較細(幾千瓦),主要用於為太空任務同實驗長期供電,喺太陽能不足嘅地方,例如航海家2號太空探測器。[194] 一啲太空飛行器已經使用核反應爐發射升空:34座反應爐屬於蘇聯RORSAT系列,一座係美國嘅SNAP-10A[194]

核裂變同核融合都睇嚟喺太空船推進應用方面有好大潛力,佢哋可以用更少嘅工質(propellant)產生更高嘅任務速度。[194][195]

安全

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各種能源每單位電力生產嘅死亡率

同其他發電廠相比,核電廠有三個獨特嘅特性會影響佢哋嘅安全性。首先,核反應爐入面存在高度放射性物質。如果釋放到環境中可能會好危險。第二,裂變產物,構成咗反應堆內大部分高度放射性物質,即使喺裂變連鎖反應停止之後,仍然會繼續產生大量衰變熱。如果無法將呢啲熱量從反應堆帶走,燃料棒可能會過熱並釋放放射性物質。第三,如果無法控制連鎖反應,喺一啲反應堆設計中可能會發生臨界事故(反應堆功率嘅快速增加)。喺設計核反應堆嗰陣,必須考慮到呢三個特性。[196]

所有現代反應堆嘅設計都係為咗透過自然反饋機制防止反應堆功率嘅不受控制增加,呢個概念稱為反應性嘅負空泡係數。如果反應堆內嘅溫度或蒸汽量增加,裂變率自然會下降。亦可以透過將控制棒插入爐心嚟手動停止連鎖反應。緊急爐心冷卻系統(ECCS)可以喺正常冷卻系統失效嘅情況下將衰變熱從反應堆移走。[197] 如果ECCS失效,即使喺發生事故嘅情況下,多重物理屏障都可以限制放射性物質釋放到環境。最後一道物理屏障係大型嘅安全殼[196]

太瓦時(TWh)計算,核能嘅死亡率為0.03,就死亡率嚟講,佢係每單位能源產生嘅第二安全嘅能源,僅次於太陽能。[198] 煤、石油、天然氣同水力發電產生嘅能源,由於空氣污染能源事故,造成嘅每單位能量死亡人數更多。喺比較其他能源嘅直接死亡人數同核能事故嘅直接死亡人數同潛在或預測嘅間接癌症死亡人數嗰陣,就會發現呢一點。[199][200] 喺比較核能同化石燃料嘅直接同間接死亡人數(包括由採礦同空氣污染導致嘅死亡人數)嗰陣,[201] 據計算,使用核能喺1971年至2009年期間防止咗大約184萬人因空氣污染而死亡,佢透過減少本應由化石燃料產生嘅能源比例嚟實現呢個目標。[202][203] 據估計,喺2011年福島核災之後,如果日本從未採用核能,噉煤電廠或者天然氣電廠嘅事故同污染會導致更多嘅生命年損失。[204]

核事故嘅嚴重影響通常唔可以直接歸因於輻射暴露,而係社會同心理影響。受影響人口嘅疏散同長期流離失所為好多人帶嚟咗問題,特別係老年人同住院病人。[205] 強制從核事故中撤離可能會導致社會隔離、焦慮、抑鬱、心身醫學問題、魯莽行為同自殺。2005年對切爾諾貝爾災難後果進行嘅一項全面研究得出結論,精神健康影響係呢次事故造成嘅最大公共衛生問題。[206] 美國科學家弗蘭克·馮·希珀爾評論話,對電離輻射嘅過度恐懼(輻射恐懼症)可能會對福島核災後受污染地區嘅居民產生長期嘅心理影響。[207]

事故

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喺2011年福島第一核電廠事故之後,自1986年以嚟世界上最嚴重嘅核事故,5萬戶家庭因輻射洩漏到空氣、土壤同海洋而流離失所。[208] 輻射檢查導致一啲蔬菜同魚類嘅運輸被禁止。[209]
反應堆衰變熱,以反應堆關閉後嘅全功率嘅一部分計算,使用咗兩種唔同嘅關聯性。為咗消除衰變熱,反應堆喺裂變反應關閉後需要冷卻。失去消除衰變熱嘅能力導致咗福島事故

一啲嚴重嘅核同輻射事故已經發生過。核事故嘅嚴重程度通常使用國際核事件分級表(INES)嚟分類,佢係由國際原子能機構(IAEA)引入嘅。該分級表將異常事件或事故按等級從0(偏離正常運行,唔構成安全風險)到7(具有廣泛影響嘅重大事故)進行排名。民用核電產業已經發生過三宗5級或以上嘅事故,其中兩宗,切爾諾貝爾核事故福島事故,被評為7級。

第一批重大核事故係1957年喺蘇聯發生嘅克什特姆核災同喺英國發生嘅溫斯喬爾火災。美國核反應堆嘅第一宗重大事故發生喺1961年,地點喺愛達荷國家實驗室SL-1,一座美國陸軍嘅實驗性核電反應堆。一次不受控制嘅連鎖反應導致蒸汽爆炸,造成三名機組人員死亡,並導致爐心熔毀[210][211] 另一宗嚴重事故發生喺1968年,當時蘇聯潛艇Template:Ship號上嘅兩座液態金屬冷卻反應爐之一發生咗燃料組件故障氣態裂變產物排放到周圍空氣,造成9名船員死亡,83人受傷。[212]

福島第一核電廠事故係由2011年日本東北地方太平洋近海地震引發嘅。呢次事故冇造成任何同輻射有關嘅死亡,但導致周圍地區嘅放射性污染。預計清理行動嘅困難會喺40年或更長時間內花費數百億美元。[213][214] 1979年嘅三哩島核事故係一次規模較小嘅事故,國際核事件分級表評為5級。事故冇造成直接或間接嘅死亡。[215]

核事故嘅影響存在爭議。根據班傑明·K·索瓦庫(Benjamin K. Sovacool)嘅講法,裂變能源事故喺能源事故嘅總經濟成本方面排名第一,佔能源事故造成嘅所有財產損失嘅41%。[216] 另一項分析發現,煤、石油、液化石油氣同水力事故(主要由於板橋水庫潰壩事件)造成嘅經濟影響大於核電事故。[217] 呢項研究比較咗核能造成嘅潛伏期癌症死亡人數同其他能源每單位能源產生嘅直接死亡人數,並冇將化石燃料相關癌症同其他因使用化石燃料消耗而造成嘅間接死亡人數納入其「嚴重事故」(超過五人死亡嘅事故)分類。1986年嘅切爾諾貝爾事故造成大約50人因直接同間接影響而死亡,仲有一啲人因急性放射線症候群而暫時受到重傷。[218] 未來預測嘅癌症發病率增加造成嘅死亡人數估計喺未來幾十年達到4000人。[219][220][221] 但係,成本一直好高,而且仲喺度增加。

核能喺一個保險框架下運作,該框架根據國家同國際公約限制或構建事故責任。[222] 人們經常認為,責任方面嘅潛在不足代表咗一個外部成本,佢冇計入核電嘅成本入面。根據美國國會預算辦公室嘅一項研究,呢項成本好細,大約佔均化發電成本嘅0.1%。[223] 呢啲針對最壞情況、超出常規保險範圍嘅成本並唔係核能獨有嘅。水力發電廠同樣冇針對災難性事件(例如水壩潰壩)嘅充分保險。例如,板橋水庫嘅潰壩造成估計3萬至20萬人死亡,1100萬人失去家園。由於私人保險公司嘅水壩保險保費係基於有限嘅情景,因此呢個行業嘅重大災難保險同樣由國家提供。[224]

襲擊同破壞

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恐怖分子可能會以核電廠為目標,試圖將放射性污染釋放到社區。[225] 美國九一一委員會表示,核電廠係最初考慮九一一襲擊事件嘅潛在目標。對反應堆乏燃料池嘅襲擊亦可能好嚴重,因為呢啲燃料池嘅保護措施冇反應堆爐心咁好。放射性物質嘅釋放可能會導致數千人喺近期死亡,仲會有更多人喺長期內死亡。

喺美國,核能管理委員會(NRC)至少每三年喺所有核電廠廠址進行一次「武力對抗武力」(Force-on-force, FOF) 演習。[225] 喺美國,電廠周圍環繞住雙排高聳嘅圍欄,並受到電子監控。電廠場地由一支相當規模嘅武裝警衛部隊巡邏。[226]

內部破壞亦都係一種威脅,因為內部人員可以觀察同繞過安全措施。成功嘅內部犯罪取決於犯罪者對安全漏洞嘅觀察同了解。[227] 1971年,一場火災對紐約嘅印第安角核電廠造成咗價值500萬至1000萬美元嘅損失。[228] 縱火犯係一名電廠維修工人。[229]

擴散

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想知多啲:核擴散
美國同蘇聯/俄羅斯核武器儲備,1945-2006年。百萬噸級核彈頭換兆瓦級電力計劃係自冷戰結束以來全球核武器數量大幅減少嘅主要推動力。[230][231]
導彈巡洋艦蒙特雷號 (CG-61)喺海上從尼米茲級航空母艦喬治·華盛頓號航空母艦 (CVN-73)接收燃料(FAS)。

核擴散(Nuclear proliferation)係指核武器、裂變材料同武器相關嘅核技術擴散到原本冇核武器嘅國家。好多同建立核能計劃相關嘅技術同材料都具有雙重用途能力,因為佢哋亦可以用嚟製造核武器。因此,核能存在擴散風險。

核能計劃可能成為通往核武器嘅途徑。伊朗嘅核計劃就係一個例子。[232] 將民用核工業轉用於軍事目的將違反核不擴散條約(NPT),有190個國家遵守呢條條約。截至2012年4月,有三十一個國家擁有民用核電廠,[233] 其中九個擁有核武器。呢啲核武國家嘅絕大多數都喺擁有商用核電站之前就已經生產咗武器。

全球安全嘅一個基本目標係盡量減少同核能擴張相關嘅核擴散風險。[232] 全球核能夥伴關係(GNEP)係一項國際努力,旨在創建一個分銷網絡,喺呢個網絡入面,有能源需求嘅發展中國家將以折扣價獲得核燃料,以換取該國同意放棄開發本土鈾濃縮計劃。法國嘅歐洲鈾濃縮濃縮公司/「歐洲氣體擴散鈾濃縮聯盟」(Eurodif)係一個成功實施呢個概念嘅計劃,西班牙同其他冇濃縮設施嘅國家購買咗法國控制嘅濃縮設施生產嘅燃料嘅一部分,但冇技術轉讓。[234] 伊朗喺1974年係早期參與者,並透過索菲迪夫(Sofidif)保持住Eurodif嘅股東地位。

聯合國喺2009年嘅一份報告中指出:

對核能嘅重新關注可能會導致鈾濃縮同乏燃料再處理技術喺全球範圍內傳播,呢啲技術具有明顯嘅擴散風險,因為佢哋可以生產直接用於核武器嘅裂變材料。[235]

另一方面,當軍用級核材料被再處理用於核電廠燃料時,發電反應堆亦可以減少核武器武庫。百萬噸級核彈頭換兆瓦級電力計劃(Megatons to Megawatts Program)被認為係迄今為止最成功嘅核不擴散計劃。[230] 截至2005年,該計劃已經將價值80億美元嘅高濃縮武器級鈾加工成低濃縮鈾,透過用天然鈾稀釋,適用於商用裂變反應堆嘅核燃料。呢個相當於消除咗10,000件核武器。[236] 在大約20年嘅時間入面,呢種材料產生咗美國消耗電力嘅近10%,或者大約佔美國所有核能電力嘅一半,總共產生咗約7,000 太瓦時嘅電力。[237] 據估計,佢總共花費咗170億美元,對於美國納稅人嚟講係「划算嘅交易」,俄羅斯從中獲利120億美元。[237] 對於俄羅斯核監督產業嚟講,呢啲利潤係非常需要嘅,因為喺蘇聯經濟崩潰之後,佢哋難以支付俄羅斯聯邦高濃縮鈾同彈頭嘅維護同安全費用。[238] 百萬噸級核彈頭換兆瓦級電力計劃被反核武器倡導者譽為一項重大成功,因為佢在很大程度上推動咗自冷戰結束以來全球核武器數量嘅急劇減少。[230] 然而,如果冇核反應堆嘅增加同對裂變燃料嘅更大需求,拆除同降級嘅成本已經令俄羅斯唔想繼續佢哋嘅裁軍。截至2013年,俄羅斯似乎對延長該計劃冇興趣。[239]

環境影響

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伊方核電廠,一座壓水反應爐,透過使用輔助冷卻劑熱交換器同大型水體嚟冷卻,呢個係大型冷卻塔嘅替代冷卻方法

作為一種低碳能源,核能嘅土地使用需求相對較少,佢可以產生積極嘅環境影響。但佢亦需要持續供應大量嘅水,並透過採礦同研磨影響環境。[240][241][242][243] 佢對環境最大嘅潛在負面影響可能嚟自佢嘅跨代風險,核武器擴散可能會增加未來使用核武器嘅風險,同放射性廢物管理相關嘅問題風險,例如地下水污染、事故風險以及針對廢物儲存地點或再處理廠同發電廠嘅各種形式襲擊嘅風險。[75][244][245][246][247][243][248][249] 然而,呢啲主要仍然只係風險,因為從歷史上嚟睇,核電廠只發生過幾次災難,已知嘅環境影響相對較大。

碳排放

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Template:Climate change mitigation

電力供應技術嘅生命週期溫室氣體排放,政府間氣候變化專門委員會(IPCC) 計算嘅中位數值[250]

核能係生產電力嘅主要低碳發電方法之一,喺每單位能源產生嘅生命週期溫室氣體總排放量方面,核能嘅排放值同可再生能源相當甚至更低。[251][252] 政府間氣候變化專門委員會(IPCC) 喺2014年對碳足跡文獻嘅分析報告指出,核能嘅內含總生命週期排放強度中位數值係每千瓦時(kWh) 12 克二氧化碳當量(gCO₂eq/kWh),喺所有商業基載能源入面係最低嘅。[250][253] 相比之下,煤炭天然氣分別係820同490克二氧化碳當量/千瓦時。[250][253] 根據一份報告,截至2021年,同燃煤發電相比,全球核反應堆自1970年以來已經幫助避免咗720億噸二氧化碳嘅排放。[203][254]

輻射

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全球平均背景輻射劑量係每年2.4毫希弗(mSv/a)。佢喺每年1毫希弗到13毫希弗之間變化,主要取決於位置嘅地質情況。根據聯合國(UNSCEAR)嘅講法,常規核電廠運作,包括核燃料循環,令全球平均公眾暴露量增加咗每年0.0002毫希弗。喺核電廠周圍地區居住嘅當地居民,平均受到嘅劑量少於每年0.0001毫希弗[255] 作為比較,居住喺燃煤發電廠50英里[convert: %s]%s範圍內嘅人嘅平均劑量係呢個劑量嘅三倍以上,為每年0.0003毫希弗[256]

切爾諾貝爾事故導致受影響最嚴重嘅周圍居民同男性救援人員喺幾小時到幾星期內,平均接受咗50到100毫希弗嘅初始劑量,而最嚴重嘅核電廠事故喺全球範圍內嘅平均暴露遺留量係每年0.002毫希弗,並且正以衰變率持續下降,最初喺1986年事故發生嗰年,北半球全體居民嘅平均值高達每人0.04毫希弗[255]

辯論

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内文:核能辯論
比較核裂變同其他來源能源嘅價格隨時間變化。喺呈現嘅時間內,成千上萬嘅風力渦輪機同類似設備喺流水線上大規模生產,產生咗規模經濟。雖然核能仍然係定制嘅,但在所示時間範圍內增加咗好多同類型嘅設施,而且冇一個係批量生產嘅。 「我哋嘅世界數據」(Our World in Data)指出,呢個成本係全球「平均值」,而推高核能定價嘅兩個項目喺美國。該組織承認,喺2010年代出口最多同生產最多嘅核能設施(韓國APR1400)嘅中位數成本保持「不變」,包括喺出口方面。[257]
均化發電成本(LCOE)係衡量發電廠在其使用壽命內平均淨現值發電成本嘅指標。作為一個指標,佢仍然存在爭議,因為機組嘅壽命唔係獨立嘅,而係製造商嘅預測,而唔係經過驗證嘅長壽。

核能辯論係指圍繞部署同使用核裂變反應堆,利用核燃料為民用目的發電嘅爭議。[28][258][29]

核能嘅支持者認為,佢係一種可持續能源,可以減少碳排放,並透過減少對其他能源(好多亦都係[92][93][94] 依賴進口嘅)依賴嚟提高能源安全[259][260][261] 例如,支持者指出,每年核能發電可以減少4.7億噸二氧化碳排放,否則呢啲排放將嚟自化石燃料。[262] 此外,核能產生嘅相對較少廢物量可以由大型核能生產設施安全處置,或者可以重新利用/回收以作其他能源用途。[263] M·金·哈伯特普及咗石油峰值嘅概念,佢認為石油係一種會耗盡嘅資源,而核能係佢嘅替代品。[264] 支持者亦聲稱,目前核廢料數量好少,可以透過新反應堆嘅最新技術嚟減少,而且裂變發電喺死亡人數方面嘅運營安全記錄到目前為止係「無與倫比」嘅。[17] 普什克·卡雷查詹姆斯·漢森估計,「全球核能平均防止咗184萬例同空氣污染相關嘅死亡,以及640億噸二氧化碳當量(GtCO2-eq)嘅溫室氣體(GHG)排放,呢啲排放本來會嚟自燃燒化石燃料」,如果繼續落去,到2050年可能會防止多達700萬人死亡同240GtCO2-eq排放。[203]

支持者仲提出咗使用其他形式電力嘅機會成本。例如,美國環境保護署估計,煤炭每年會殺死3萬人,[265] 因為佢對環境嘅影響,而切爾諾貝爾災難入面有60人死亡。[266] 支持者提供嘅一個真實世界嘅影響例子係,佛蒙特洋基核電廠關閉後嘅兩個月入面,碳排放量增加咗65萬噸。[267]

反對者認為,核能對人類健康同環境構成好多威脅,[268][269] 例如核武器擴散嘅風險、長期安全嘅廢物管理同未來嘅恐怖主義。[270][271] 佢哋仲認為,核電廠係複雜嘅系統,好多嘢都可能出錯,而且已經出錯。[272][273] 切爾諾貝爾核災嘅成本截至2019年達到≈680億美元,而且仲喺度增加,[37] 福島災難估計要花費納稅人約1870億美元,[188] 而放射性廢物管理估計到2050年將花費歐洲聯盟核電營運商約2500億美元。[190] 但係,喺已經使用核能嘅國家,如果唔考慮再處理,中間核廢料處置成本可能會相對固定喺某啲未知嘅程度上,[274] 「因為呢啲成本嘅主要部分嚟自中間儲存設施嘅運營」。[275]

批評者發現,興建新嘅核裂變電廠嘅最大缺點之一係,同可持續能源嘅替代來源相比,佢嘅建設同運營成本都好高。[57][276][86][242][277] 進一步嘅成本包括持續嘅研發、喺實施再處理嘅情況下昂貴嘅核燃料再處理[75][76][77][79] 同埋除役。[278][279][280] 支持者指出,然而,關注[均化發電成本]忽略咗同全天候可調度電力相關嘅價值溢價,以及將可變能源整合到可靠電網所需嘅儲能同備用系統嘅成本。[281] 「因此,核能仍然係2025年預期成本最低嘅可調度低碳技術。只有大型水電站水庫可以以相當嘅成本提供類似嘅貢獻,但仍然高度依賴個別國家嘅自然稟賦。」[282]

喺德國北部戈爾萊本核廢料處置中心附近嘅反核抗議活動

總體嚟講,好多反對者認為核能唔能夠對減緩氣候變化做出有意義嘅貢獻。總體而言,佢哋認為核能太危險、太貴、部署時間太長,係實現向可持續發展同碳中和轉型嘅障礙,[86][283][284][285] 實際上係對部署同開發替代嘅、可持續嘅能源系統技術嘅資源(即人力、財力、時間、基礎設施同專業知識)嘅干擾性競爭,[87][286][86][287] (例如風能、海洋能同太陽能[86]——包括例如浮動式太陽能——以及管理佢哋間歇性嘅方法,而唔係核能基載[288] 發電,例如可調度發電、可再生能源多樣化、[289][290] 超級電網、靈活嘅能源需求同供應調節智能電網同儲能[291][292][293][294][295] 技術)。[296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303][249] 技術)。

土地使用

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美國核電站每1吉瓦已裝容量嘅中位土地使用面積係1.3平方英里(3.4平方公里)。[304][305] 要從太陽能光伏發電每年產生相同嘅電量(考慮到容量因數),就需要大約60平方英里(160平方公里),而從風力發電場就需要大約310平方英里(800平方公里)。[304][305] 呢個唔包括相關嘅輸電線路、供水、鐵路線路、鈾燃料開採同加工以及廢物處置所需嘅土地。[306]

研究

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先進裂變反應爐設計

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而家全球運作緊嘅裂變反應爐係第二代反應爐或者第三代反應爐系統,而大多數第一代系統已經退役。對先進第四代反應爐類型嘅研究由[第四代國際論壇]正式啟動,基於八個技術目標,包括提高經濟性、安全性、防擴散性、自然資源利用率以及喺發電入面消耗現有核廢料嘅能力。呢啲反應爐大多數同目前運作嘅輕水反應爐有顯著唔同,預計喺2030年之後先可以進行商業建造。[307]

混合融合-裂變

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混合核能係一種擬議嘅發電方式,佢透過結合核融合同裂變過程嚟發電。呢個概念可以追溯到1950年代,漢斯·貝特喺1970年代曾經短暫提倡過,但係直到2009年先至重新引起關注,主要係因為純粹嘅核融合實現嘅延遲。當一座可持續嘅核融合電廠建成後,佢有可能提取乏裂變燃料入面剩餘嘅所有裂變能量,將核廢料嘅體積減少幾個數量級,更重要嘅係,消除乏燃料入面存在嘅所有錒系元素,呢啲物質會引起安全問題。[308]

融合

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喺法國起緊嘅[國際熱核聚變實驗反應堆] 托卡馬克示意圖

核融合反應具有比裂變更安全同產生更少放射性廢物嘅潛力。[309][310] 呢啲反應睇起嚟好似有可行性,但係技術上相當困難,而且仲未喺可以用於功能性發電廠嘅規模上創造出嚟。核融合能自1950年代以來一直喺理論同實驗研究入面。核融合研究正在進行中,但係核融合能喺2050年之前都唔太可能實現商業普及。[311][312][313]

已經存在幾個實驗性核融合反應爐同設施。目前正在進行中嘅最大型、最雄心勃勃嘅國際核融合項目係[國際熱核聚變實驗反應堆],佢係一個大型托卡馬克,喺法國起緊。ITER計劃透過演示具有正能量增益嘅自持核融合反應,為商業核融合能鋪平道路。ITER設施嘅建設喺2007年開始,但該項目已經遇到咗好多延遲同預算超支。而家預計該設施要到2027年先會開始運作,比最初預期嘅時間遲咗11年。[314] 已經有人提出咗後續嘅商業核融合電站示範電站[315][316] 仲有人建議基於唔同核融合方法(慣性約束核融合電站)嘅發電廠。

核融合發電最初被認為好容易實現,正如裂變發電一樣。然而,對持續反應同等離子體約束嘅極端要求導致預測被延長咗幾十年。喺2020年,喺首次嘗試80多年後,核融合發電嘅商業化被認為喺2050年之前都唔太可能實現。[315][317][318][319][320]

為咗加強同加速核融合能嘅發展,[美國能源部]喺2023年向聯邦融合系統托卡馬克能源公司等八家公司撥款4600萬美元。呢個雄心勃勃嘅倡議旨在喺十年內推出試驗規模嘅核融合。[321]

參見

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參考文獻

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  1. 1.0 1.1 World Nuclear Performance Report 2024 (PDF) (報告). World Nuclear Association. 2024. pp. 3–5. 喺2024-11-10搵到.
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延伸閱讀

[編輯]

AEC 原子信息小冊子,兩個系列,「了解原子」同「原子世界」 互聯網檔案館歸檔,歸檔日期2019-01-07.。美國原子能委員會 (AEC) 喺1960年代同1970年代出版嘅共75本小冊子,由科學家撰寫,將所有小冊子放埋一齊,就構成咗當時核科學史同佢嘅應用。

Armstrong, Robert C.、Catherine Wolfram、Robert Gross、Nathan S. Lewis 同 M.V. 拉瑪納 等人。能源前沿 互聯網檔案館歸檔,歸檔日期2016-05-23.,《自然能源》,第 1 卷,2016 年 1 月 11 號。

Brown, Kate (2013)。《Plutopia:核家庭、原子城市以及偉大嘅蘇聯同美國鈈災難》,牛津大學出版社。

Clarfield, Gerald H. 同 Wiecek, William M. (1984)。《核美國:1940-1980 年美國嘅軍事同民用核能》,哈珀羅出版社。

[史蒂芬妮·庫克|Cooke, Stephanie]。《在凡人之手:核時代的警示歷史》,Black Inc。

Cravens, Gwyneth (2007). Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26656-9.

[大衛·艾略特 (教授)|Elliott, David]。《要核能定唔要核能?核能喺可持續能源嘅未來入面有冇一席之地?》,帕爾格雷夫出版社。

Ferguson, Charles D.,(2007)。《核能:平衡收益同風險》外交關係委員會

Garwin, Richard L. 同 Charpak, Georges (2001) 兆瓦與百萬噸 核時代嘅轉捩點?,克諾夫出版社。

Herbst, Alan M. 同 George W. Hopley (2007)。《立即使用核能:世界最被誤解嘅能源嘅時機已經到來》,威利出版社。

Mahaffey, James (2015). Atomic accidents: a history of nuclear meltdowns and disasters: from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima. Pegasus Books. ISBN 978-1-60598-680-7.

Patterson, Eann A.; Taylor, Richard J. (2024). "The commoditization of civil nuclear power". 家學會開放科學. 11 (5): 240021. Bibcode:2024RSOS...1140021P. doi:10.1098/rsos.240021. PMC 11285846. PMID 39076811. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmc= value (help); Check |pmid= value (help)

Oreskes, Naomi,「打破技術承諾:我哋冇足夠時間用核能嚟拯救我哋免受氣候危機」,科學美國人,第 326 卷,第 2 期(2022 年 2 月),第 74 頁。

Schneider, MycleSteve Thomas安東尼·弗羅加特、Doug Koplow (2016)。世界核工業狀況報告: 截至 2016 年 1 月 1 號嘅世界核工業狀況》。

Walker, J. Samuel (1992)。《控制原子:變化環境中嘅核監管,1962-1971 年》,加利福尼亞州伯克利:加利福尼亞大學出版社。

斯潘塞·威爾特,《核恐懼的興起》。馬薩諸塞州劍橋:哈佛大學出版社,2012 年。ISBN 0-674-05233-1

外部連結

[編輯]

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美國能源信息署 互聯網檔案館歸檔,歸檔日期2011-07-08.

核燃料循環成本計算器 互聯網檔案館歸檔,歸檔日期2022-07-11.

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